Introduction

One of the most enjoyable parts of owning a house is the creativity involved in caring for its grounds. It matters little whether it is a small ten by twenty yard just out the back door of a town home, a large multi-acre estate with many buildings, or somewhere between. That is the area that, to me, is my part of nature to care for and to nurture.

The effort and care that I put into my yard is repaid in a multitude of returns. A most relaxing activity can be simply observing what goes on within it, the creatures visit and how they interact with the landscape and each other. Different furred, feathered, and scaled animals are attracted to different parts, different plants, and different structures, each gravitating to that which best suites its immediate needs.

There are always surprises to be had. No matter how often I stroll through my yard, no matter how thoroughly I examine it, there is always something new — something previously overlooked, or something changed. A landscape is dynamic, always changing with seasons that are never quite the same as those past, and with growth that is constant as the years progress. Much of the change is predictable — good planning incorporates and capitalizes on it — but much is not. Unforseen developments keep the landscape fresh and interesting.

Why Natives?

Given the wide range of plants that are available in most nurseries, most suited to the local climate, why should we go out of our way to incorporate native into our landscaping plans? The reasons may well vary as much as do the native plants and the people who use them. Most of gardens and yards do contain a few natives, though many of them may be considered “weeds”. However, there are several very good, concrete benefits of cultivating natives to work with the natural processes rather than against them. Native plants are those that evolved in the area and have developed mechanisms for coping with local conditions. This usually means that they will require less care than plants that are adapted to conditions elsewhere.

Take your design cue from where you are. If the natural plant community in which you live is an oak woodland, don’t try to create a tropical rain forest; to be successful, your water usage (and bill) will be obscene! Beyond the issues of wasteful resource utilization, at best the result will be out of place. Our rolling foothills are naturally graced with the rounded forms of native oaks, rugged coastlines with wind swept evergreens, flat valleys with low grasses and wildflowers, and stream corridors are rich with willows topped by cottonwood. The shapes and textures of these plants merge with and enhance the land forms, creating eye pleasing scenes. The same idea can be used when planning urban landscapes. In this way, even a small, fenced yard blends smoothly within the larger area.

Beyond the pure aesthetics, by using native plants that might have been present hundreds, or thousands of years ago you can create your own nature preserve. An ecological niche is a small, but complex, environment that is a combination of the plants and animals interacting with each other. Natives, both animals and plants evolved with one another, and while many may be able to adapt to exotics, they have long been able to live with the natives, and some require them. Some endangered animals require natives. By reintroducing Silver Lupine you may notice the endangered Checkerspot Butterfly visiting. The primary cause of extinction is habitat loss; with care and planning we can each, individually, help alleviate part of this problem.

The practical advantages of natives are also several. Ease of care was mentioned above. This spans acclimation to seasonal weather conditions, like our summer drought and coastal fog, to soil conditions that are usually alkaline and sometimes high in serpentine. Resistance to local diseases and pests is another normal trait. Western natives have all developed strategies for dealing with fires that once upon a time, regularly swept the entire area. Some species survive through seeds or sheer numbers. Others are fire resistant. For instance, redwoods have developed fire resistant bark. Most of our native grasses maintain some moisture, even in the driest part of the year, so being somewhat fire resistant. Using fire resistant plants in our landscape has obvious benefits.

These are a few of the more apparent reasons why one might prefer to use native plants in an urban landscape plan. Certainly there are others. My hope is that you will use the information in this book and elsewhere to develop an understanding and an appreciation to the plants that were here before you. In so doing, I think you will find much pleasure in inviting them into you home and life.

A Few Basics

Landscaping has been described as combining biology, =”h2horticulture, architecture, and social relations and applying it to a specific climate, site, and way of life. It includes not only the plantings in the area but also the other features such as rocks, fences, patios and decks, walks, pools, and anything else that makes up the general area. It is then, no surprise then that as an art form it can be extremely personal with few absolute rules. Neither is it surprising that many people are overwhelmed by the whole idea and either ignore it, leaving their grounds as they are and performing minimal maintenance, or haphazardly poke a few plants in the ground, now and then, that rarely survive. These results are unimaginative at best.

Another choice to which some resort is hiring professionals to do part or all of the initial work, and occasionally the ongoing maintenance as well. There is nothing wrong with this approach. However, landscaping is something that the average person can do themselves. It takes thought, imagination, time, and some physical labor, but no more of any of these than the vast majority of people have at their disposal.

That said, the choice of doing it yourself or hiring others is a decision you must make for yourself based on your interest and what you want to accomplish in what amount of time for how much money. Although it can be expensive, there are a couple of advantages to having some of the job done for you. It is not an all or nothing decision; it may be appropriate to hire out parts while doing much of the work yourself. People who are uncomfortable with design may find the services of a landscape designer or landscape architect of great value. After discussions about your specific needs, desires, and expectations, a “Master Plan” can be drawn up which you can carry out as your time and budget allow.

Another option is having some or all of the actual implementation done by professionals. One plus to this is that often professional landscapers include some design work with the project. The biggest advantage of having this phase done for you is that it is normally done quickly. A project that might take you one or more years to complete can normally be done by a crew in a matter of days. Other possible reasons for hiring someone might include obtaining a specialized skill, like concrete finishing or brick laying, that you neither have nor care to learn, or obtaining equipment that you may not have access to for heavy work such as a bulldozer or backhoe for grading or trenching.

Hiring someone to do part or all of the landscape maintenance is normally a decision weighing money versus time and interest. It can be handy to have someone cut and trim your lawn, especially if it is a large one, but most of the time you spend on landscape maintenance is also time that you learn about it and develop a detailed feel for the plants within it.

However you go about your landscaping, the better idea you have of what you are trying to achieve, the more apt you are to be satisfied with the results. Even if you bring in a professional to help you with your design, you should have a general idea of what you want to accomplish and how it should look. There is no substitute for good planning.

Getting Started

The question for most homeowners is where to start. The average person does not know a lot about landscape design or the things that ought to be considered. The following section will briefly describe much of what goes into planning and design. Beyond what is here, you are strongly encouraged to visit your local library or bookstore where you will find a good deal more information about landscape design that will prove most useful.

The first step is one that no one can do for you; that is to determine, at least generally, what your preferences are. What types of effects attract you? The best way to do this is to observe what others have done and notice your reaction to them. Magazines and catalogs can be helpful; observing landscapes that you visit is your best source of ideas because you can see how various techniques actually work. Use all of your senses; note fragrances that you do and do not like; and listen for the sounds of birds or dripping water. Texture can add or detract from what you experience as can shadowing and color combinations. You may find some that are interesting, but not what you would have done. Some you may find distasteful; others quite appealing. This is not a time to limit yourself by what you think may or may not be doable; think of it as collecting ideas, much of which will be discarded later. Lists and possibly rough sketches may be helpful to jog your memory later.

Part of your initial thinking should be about how you use the outside area. Successful landscapes are designed to be an integral part of your living space, and as such, must have a practical aspect to them. Play areas for children, a storage section for tools or compost, places to entertain guests, a spot for intimate conversation, or others may be appropriate. This is still not a time for limits, though once your list is complete it might be helpful to note the relative importance of each. There may well not be room for all of the areas you might like to have.

These two lists can be done at the same time. Often people have ideas for starting them already. It can be helpful to note how others have provided for the similar needs and how they do or do not work and why.

Use What You Have

The next step is to evaluate what you already have. There will be some existing plantings, fences, walks, or other features, unless you have moved into a new house with a bulldozed lot. Even then, the house itself will provide a starting point. These may or may not be useful. Some parts of your yard may not need to be changed at all, others may provide a base for change. The trick here is to envision how the raw material you are provided with can be used to maximum advantage. Some of it may need to be removed, some of it may be what makes a particular spot unique.

Broadening your view is important at this point. Notice the whole neighborhood. Is there an overall feeling or theme, planned or not? Whatever you do in your yard will be a part of the whole, so you will need to ensure that your additions are an enhancement. The flip side of this is that what exists around you influences your personal space. Unless you construct large barriers completely enclosing yourself, the surrounding community will be a part of your environment. This can be an advantage, making your lot appear larger than it really is. Alternatively, there may be parts of the neighborhood that you would just as soon not see. Fences and screens can be used to provide privacy; they also mark boundaries, telling the world that, for you, nothing exists beyond.

Another important frame of mind is continuing to keep a fresh perspective, continually look around as though you are a visitor, seeing things for the first time. Without some effort, the longer we live in a place, the longer we look at it, the less we notice, getting into ruts of concentrating on the same focal points, missing everything between them. Often it is in the “in between” spots that contain inspiration, change, and potential.

This is also the time to note the larger surroundings in which you find yourself. What environmental considerations has nature given you? What was here before man changed it? Do you live along the coast where moisture is plentiful, but salty breezes an issue, or do you find yourself in the dryer grasslands? Working with the natural processes will always be easier than against them. An overview of the California plant community types appears in a later section. With this information in mind, visit the wild places in your vicinity. Here you will discover some of what nature provides without assistance. If you look closely, with an open mind, you can find a plethora of ideas and inspiration.

Style and Design

Only with the above steps complete are you ready to begin the design phase. The first decision to be made here is to decide what overall style you will use. Keeping in mind your personal preferences, a trip to the library may be needed here. You should find all manner of discussions, descriptions, and pictures of the multitude of landscape styles from the most formal designs to the most casual “wildscape”. Each has a unique look and feel to it. Generally what you will find will fall into one of three categories: formal, informal, or naturalistic. Formal gardens consist of strong lines and symmetrical shapes, sometimes including heavily clipped shrubs. Informal gardens can include some of these elements along with flowing lines and plants growing in their natural form. The majority of what is implemented is in this group. Natural landscapes are, to the extent possible, copies of what is found in the wild. Many think of this as an extreme of the informal style. The discussion and plants in this book are generally geared toward more the more informal styles, but can be useful in all.

Put It On Paper

Putting your ideas down on paper, at this stage, is critical. This is the only way to see how the various aspects of your property will relate to one another and tie together into a unified whole. The different areas may seem isolated, but adjacent sections will normally need to blend into one another, unless separated by some type of wall or screen. The best place to begin is to create a scale drawing of what currently exists. Place the house, driveway, walk, and so forth. You should indicate on the drawing where the sun rises, the prevailing wind direction, and any slopes that exist. The more accurate and detailed, the better, as this will be your base drawing. Large paper, eleven by seventeen or larger, will allow you to use a scale large enough to show adequate detail. Normally an eighth to a quarter inch equals one foot is good. Obviously, the scale and size of paper is dependent on the size of the area you are dealing with.

If you have a deed map, plot plan, or architectural drawing of the house, they can be used as a guide, saving time in actual measuring your lot. You may still have to add plants, decks, and so on that are not on the original drawing. If there is no existing drawing from which to start, you will have to use a tape measure (50′ or longer), and start from scratch.

Your ideas can now be superimposed onto photocopies or tracings of your base drawing. You may regularly find it helpful to mark your sketchings on the ground using stakes and string or buckets and hoses to envision the actual scale. What looks good on paper, may need adjusting in practice.

This is a good time to begin laying out the use areas that you need or want. Initially, do not be too concerned about exact size, pay more attention to relative placement. Be sure the tool storage area is close to the garden, the kid’s play area just beyond the side door you want them to use but away from the small master bedroom patio. Keep in mind that one area may serve several functions. This can be important, as a yard that is broken into too many pieces will be difficult to unify.

The general size of your areas will become important, if for no other reason than to determine what will fit where. Stay flexible, though, as sometimes association with other types of areas can be as important as the actual sizes. As a rule, outdoor space should be roughly the same size as indoor rooms used in a similar fashion. Should an area be too large for a particular purpose, smaller ones can be temporarily created with groupings of furniture and/or container plants.

You will also need to consider the connections between your areas, that is, how people will get from one place to another. Walks and paths tend to direct traffic patterns, but they must be convenient to be used. People tend to take the most direct route; should you discover an unplanned path wearing into your yard, you might consider formalizing it. Otherwise, you may find it necessary to install some type of barrier.

Imagine how you would like your path used when you design it. Three feet is normally the minimum path width for one person; should you envision two people strolling abreast, the path will need to be at least five feet wide. Direct routes are not necessarily straight ones. Curved or broken lines are generally more visually appealing than straight ones. You can vary the path width or texture, to make it more interesting. A path that leads past a few focal points, then turns behind something out of sight promises more, beckoning the viewer to investigate. The addition of a few features like mystery can enhance the depth and interest to your design.

Several aspects of your design should start to become apparent as the arrangement solidifies. Utility areas may need to be screened from the rest of your yard; privacy may dictate buffers of some sort; playgrounds will a need tough lawn; a hot tub or barbecue might call for a patio or deck.

Elements of Design

Normally there are only a few places from which you and others regularly view your yard. These spots may include a patio, kitchen window, or doorway. These are called “view positions”. View positions may occur at any level — from above, a second story window or the top of a slope looking down; from below, standing at the bottom of a slope or other depression looking up; and on level, looking out ground level windows or across flat areas. Each view level can impart a distinct feeling that may be exaggerated or modified. A view from above imparts power, from below can confer feelings of either security or imprisonment, and, since a level view is most common, it is the one that will normally be the most comfortable. Tall trees and buildings with strong vertical lines can emphasize height differences from lower areas while diminishing them from high ones. Keep these “view positions” in mind as the same area may appear differently from separate places. Largely, it is these views that your are designing, so it is from these places that your landscape should look its best.

Distance is another aspect of the view to keep in mind. In the area close to you, the foreground, quite a bit of detail is apparent that is lost at medium range, the mid-ground, and only general shapes, colors, and the coarsest of textures are perceptible at a distance, the background. Apparent distance can be adjusted by using simple techniques of perspective. Smaller objects seem farther away, so if an object is smaller than the eye expects, it is placed more remote. An example of this might be to construct a fence two feet high. The reverse is also true, large objects seem closer. The use of converging lines is another way to stretch distance, as with a path that gradually narrows or angling beds. Both techniques are most effective in the mid-ground and slightly beyond.

Form, shape, texture, and color are all things to keep in mind as you begin your detailed planning. Form and shape are closely related, form being more general, including angle, size, intricacy, and so on. Buildings, decks and patios, walks, even the lay of the land that you are planting have form. It is generally a good idea to stick to similar forms, as many varying angles and sizes detract from one another confusing the observer. Low, gentle slopes should not have tall, angular plantings. A small slow growing tree is lost at the corner of a two story house. The forms that you use should complement one another, including structures and ground contours, as well as blend with those of the general neighborhood. A curved lawn, for example, should be flanked by curved, rather than rectangular beds.

The angles that you use also should be kept to a minimum; and, to the extent possible, use only familiar angle groups like 45,30, 90, or 60 degrees.

If you are forced to use odd angles, you may be able to conceal, or at least soften them with border plantings. Border plantings are often used to hide and soften barren or severe forms such as foundations.

Relative size of similar things can make a visual difference. For instance, a bed that is roughly ten feet long near one that is five feet, or twenty feet, long can add an interesting contrast. If a twelve or thirteen foot bed is too near, it may look as though you made a mistake. Even multiples of a size work best. Contrasts in shape, color, angle, and so forth must be obviously different to work.

Balance is important when you lay out various features. This does not necessarily mean symmetry, a given view is balanced if both sides of a focal point have the same visual “weight”. Generally, weight can be thought of as visual area. Two or more small beds or medium plantings may have the same weight as a single large one.

The surfaces that you use, such as walks, benches, decks, and walls along with lawns, mulch, and plants all have texture that evoke a sensation of touch, either directly through feeling or indirectly by sight. Fine textures, such as moss, lawns, or smooth surfaces tend to make excellent backgrounds, allowing the slope and other features to stand out. Boldly combining several contrasting textures can be visually interesting and very appealing. You should, however, avoid using so many textures as to be confusing.

Color has some interesting twists in landscaping. Along with texture, and occasionally shape, the color of many elements of your landscape will change with the season and the weather. Many materials look and feel quite different depending on whether they are wet or dry. Many plants show dramatically different seasonal coloration, occasionally from a full color flower display, to lush foliage, to a drab dormant state. Even the quality of light that changes during the day and from one bright sunny day to the next hazy or overcast day can have an impact on how things appear. As a designer, you must consider all of these phases.

The most effective use of color often occurs when it is used in masses. A random mixture of many colors can be attractive in the right setting, however no one color or pattern will stand out. The influence of color outside parallels its use inside. Warm colors are inviting, appearing closer than cool colors that tend to enlarge an area. Earth tones may tend to blend into the background, providing a good backdrop for bright, showy colors.

Shadows change the way things appear, can add interest and affect comfort. A shaded southern exposure is desirable to help keep houses cool in the summer. Likewise, it attracts groups seeking to avoid a hot sun. On the cooler days of Fall or Winter, the opposite may be the case. Noticing the interplay of light and shadow as it glides across your yard, marking the sun’s daily path, can help maintain interest. Even the same view changes from one moment to the next.

Perhaps the most important aspect of design is unity. Tying your landscape together and merging it with the neighborhood makes the difference between one that contains some interesting spots and one that is naturally beautiful. Generally the easiest way to maintain unity is to find one or more aspects of the neighborhood that are consistent: color, form, texture, style, and so on. Once you have determined what these commonalities are, maintain one or more of them throughout your design.

If there be no similarities, or none that you are willing to use, your job will be more difficult, but possible. Transitions can be set up to allow the eye to move easily from one area to another. Depending on how drastic the shift is, one or more intermediate steps create a smooth progression. If an abrupt transformation is dictated by space or desire, screens may be employed. As an extreme example, interior courtyards are usually isolated from the surrounding countryside and whatever is outside the house. Still, it will need to be consistent with the house and work with whatever view may be available. A wall that blocks the view beyond can accomplish much the same thing. Care must be exercised here to avoid a feeling of imprisonment, particularly if a canopy is used. Some amount of opening, either to your yard, or the sky, will almost certainly be called for.

Putting it together is a job that needs to be done with pencil and paper before it is attacked with shovel and rake. Though it may be difficult, restrain yourself; do not grab a shovel until the planning is complete. Often, the results are more an expression of planning than execution.

Completing the design may take you some time. A few people know just what they want, and how to go about creating it; this is rare. Most will find a methodical approach the best way to solutions. You may well find that you will contemplate various possibilities for months, or even years, before you finally resolve your plans to your satisfaction. It has even been recommended, only half in jest, that legislation be enacted that prohibits a new landowner from planting anything for their first three years of residence: “Until he has watched the sun rise and set on his land a thousand times . . . ” This is so that you can become part of the land before altering it.

Installation

Once satisfied with your total plan, and only then, is it time to begin installation. Check on any local building codes or community covenants to ensure that you are aware of any permits or clearances that may be necessary. You want to be sure to design generously, but now is the time to do a cost estimate. At this point your master plan should have enough detail from which to make a materials list. It may be helpful to make this list by area; that will make it easier to break the whole job into manageable pieces. When determining the number of plants, be sure to consider the size of the plants, both when you purchase them and after several years’ growth. You have no doubt been to nurseries and building supply houses, looking at materials, gaining insights and ideas. If you have not done it already, go back and collect prices and availability.

Your project may entail relatively minor adjustments to an existing landscape that you are fairly happy with, or perhaps you plan to remove much of what is in place and start over. The scope of what you are doing along with energy and budget constraints may dictate that you proceed in stages, remodeling a part of your yard at a time. This is fine.

The installation process will vary depending on the specific design. The general steps should occur in the same order, though you may not need to do them all. The following is a brief description of those steps in the order that they should be done.

Site Preparation

Before you begin, spend some time cleaning any debris from the area to be worked. This is also the time to remove whatever shrubs, trees, or other plants that you will not be using. It is probably not the time to dig up plants that you want to move, unless you can move them directly to their new site. Moving plants should be done, if possible, during the planting phase. Any unwanted buildings, walks, fences or other materials also should be removed.

Rough Grading

Once the site is clear, you can make whatever contour changes to the ground that is necessary. This can take the form of terracing to provide level planting areas on inclines, sloping the ground away from the house for drainage, or other adjustments. Soil can be added, moved, or removed. Underground drainage systems should be installed now.

Construction

The list of features that you may want or need to include in your landscape is virtually endless. It could include such things as retaining walls, walks, fences, decks, pools, gazebos, trellises, or even bridges. Now is the time to construct these along with the basic plumbing for underground portions of irrigation systems.

Soil Improvement

There are any number of problems that you can encounter with the soil that you have in place. It is a good idea to either purchase a good soil testing kit, or have several samples tested. Your agricultural county agent (listed in the phone book), will be able to tell you where to send samples for testing. Plants require different environments in terms of acidity, drainage, nutrients, and soil composition. Knowing what you will want to plant where and the existing soil conditions allow you to determine intelligently what, if any, alterations are needed. Now is the time to do this.

This step consists of bringing the soil to its final level, digging raised beds, and finish leveling of lawn areas. If the ground has not been settled by a good rainfall, soaking with a sprinkler will do the job. Depending on how deeply the earth has been loosened, you may still want to leave an extra inch of dirt for settling. Lawn areas should be finely raked level, or slightly crowned for drainage, then rolled smooth with a lawn roller. A final raking should be adequate for beds and other areas.

Planting Large Plants

Begin by placing them, still in their containers where they are to be planted, using your plan as a guide. Closely look over your placement from many angles. Adjustments at this stage are much easier than after they are in the ground. Consider how they will look after growing for a few years; what might crowd what. Do not be alarmed if the plantings look a little sparse, they will fill in with time. Once satisfied with the placement of all of the plants, you can begin to plant them, following the nursery’s recommendation for each plant. Generally that will involve digging a hole the depth of the rootball and twice as wide, removing the plant from its container being careful to disturb the roots as little as possible, placing it in the hole, soaking the rootball with water, and back filling the hole with dirt, leaving a trough around the plant to hold future water. There are many variations on this quick description. Some, particularly bare root plants, should have their roots pruned. Others should be given an initial dose of fertilizer. Trees may require staking. The point is to get detailed planting instructions from the supplier about each type of plant you purchase and follow them.

Installing Beds, Borders, and Lawns

After the large plants are in, add any other smaller plants around them to fill the beds. Once a bed is completely planted, finish it with whatever mulch, stone, or anything else needed to complete it. This should be done before installing surrounding lawns or ground covers as they will be to fragile to hold up to heavy traffic. Existing lawns should be protected with boards, if possible, to avoid wearing ruts into them. Finish planting and mulching remaining beds, then you may go to work on the ground covers. These should be done in a manner that permits you not to walk on newly planted areas. Installing the lawns is the last part of planting. This can include laying sod, seeding, or over seeding an existing lawn. Sod will need to be rolled, then refrain from walking on it for several weeks, until it grows into the existing ground. Seeds will need to be raked in, then lightly covered with peat moss or top soil to a depth of an eighth of an inch. The seeds should be kept damp until most of them germinate, and watered frequently after that, until the second or third cutting. Again, these are only general guidelines; obtain and follow your supplier’s recommendations.

The job is almost finished. Now you can put the fish into the pools, set out the last ornaments, and do a bit of last minute touch up (this may go on forever!). Cleaning up may be an obvious step, but get it done. Excess materials may often be returned for credit. Remove it or it is apt to become a permanent feature.

Initial Maintenance

Your new plants will need special care until they become established. The first couple of months will be critical. Check them regularly, daily in hot weather, to be sure that root balls do not dry out. After that, you can begin to reduce your constant attention, however, even drought resistant plants will need regular watering through their first dry season. Weeding is particularly important during this time. You may find some areas where additional mulch is needed; and, a plant or two may need to be replaced.

Ongoing Maintenance

After the first year, maintenance can become routine. The various activities called for are determined by what you have chosen to include in your landscape. Regular trimming and watering may be a part of it, annual jobs like pruning, remulching, fertilizing, planting annuals, and so forth will almost certainly be included. The time spent here reward you with an attractive view that improves with age and maturity.

In truth, for most people landscaping begins and ends with their association with the land, not by the arbitrary boundaries suggested by the “cookbook” approach offered above. The methodology of the previous discussion has been included for reference and as a point of departure. No matter what you do, there will be surprises. Parts of your plan will turn out better than you could imagine, others less so. Things such as color or plant combinations will develop that you could never have anticipated. These discoveries maintain much of the wonder of the land. Anyone with even a mild interest in their landscape will constantly observe the land, evaluate what it offers, make changes, hopefully learn from it, and perhaps even begin to understand it. Throughout the process, the most important goals are to enjoy the landscape and to share that enjoyment with others.

Including Wildlife

When people think of attracting wildlife to their yard, they normally think of birds. However, all animals share the same basic needs. If they live in your area, attracting them to your yard can be easy. Song birds do have the advantages of being easy to observe, most are active during the day, and they do not mind people nearby watching them. Squirrels and urban deer are much the same way. Most other animals will avoid people, if possible. Still, by providing the right setting, you may occasionally catch a glimpse of fox or rabbit as it dashes into the brush.

There are four things that all animals need to have available to survive. They are: food, water, a place to nest or live, and safety. You do not necessarily have to provide all four of these ingredients to attract wildlife, but all must be accessible. Providing food and water may be adequate if adequate nesting or living sites are close. I have found that when water is scarce, a bird bath will attract birds that never visit my feeder. Providing any or all of the essential elements within your landscape design is a simple matter if you plan for it.

Food

Everything needs to eat. Attracting some birds is simply a matter of putting out a feeder and filling it regularly. However, there are many types of birds that will not use a feeder and you may want to attract other types of animals. You will benefit from some brief research to familiarize yourself with the eating habits of the animals that you would like to attract. For instance, Butterflies and Hummingbirds need nectar that can be provided either by the flowers that decorate your yard or from a special feeder. Woodpeckers primarily eat bugs found on trees and will use suet, particularly in the Winter when the insect supply is low. Berry producing shrubs are particularly good for a variety of birds and many small mammals. Even the seed eating song birds have preferences and different feeder mixes will attract different birds.

The primary landscape considerations are to incorporate plants used by the animals that you wish to attract or provide an area for feeders. If you plan to use bird feeders, they need to be placed where you can easily watch visitors, and where the birds will feel safe using them. Also, bear in mind that hulls and uneaten seeds will accumulate under the feeder.

Water

This can be a critical element. The easiest way to provide water is to put out a bird bath and keep it full. It must be in an area where its users feel safe using it. Typically, this means an open area where an approaching predator, like a cat or dog, can be seen. An alternative to a bird bath could be a fountain or pond, perhaps containing some fish. Again, to be effective, it must be open. If there is a stream that runs all year or other permanent source of water near by, you will not have to provide water.

Water tends to be a focal point. The size of the water feature that you use will decide how large an area it will affect. A small bird bath can accent a bed or secluded spot. A fish pond may dominate a whole section of your yard. What ever you use, design it into the total plan so that it fits naturally.

Living Area

Places for animals to live and raise their young is an often overlooked need that is just as critical as any of the others. For a few birds and bats, a nesting box may do the trick. The box should be built and hung for a particular species as each has its preferred height, size, and style.

Beyond boxes, most small animals, including many birds, like to live in dense brush that provide safety from predators. Hedges and screens can often provide just this setting. Should these plants be thorny, such as Roses or Gooseberries, so much the better. Often these shrubs also provide food for their residents.

Safety

Different animals have different ways to avoid their predators. Typically birds fly away, deer run, tree squirrels climb trees, and ground squirrels run down their burrows. All are constantly aware of the risks they take from their every action and will minimize potential danger whenever possible. An important part of attracting wildlife is minimizing the risks required to visit or live in out yard. The best feeding and watering areas are those that allow animals a wide view of approaching predators and an escape route when necessary. Nesting areas must be especially secure. Safety should be considered when designing any of these areas.

Another consideration is the number and type of predators. Dogs and deer do not usually mix; deer will avoid areas with dogs. Birds avoid areas with too many cats.

Including wildlife into your landscape is most easily done during the initial planning. You should consider the rest of your neighborhood, as with the rest of your design, to provide any of the important wildlife needs that are missing. However, unlike plants and other landscape features, you cannot force animals into your yard, you must coax them with appealing surroundings.

Wildlife of all types add an important dimension to your landscape. They bring it alive with colors, sounds, and movement unique to each individual. You can spend hours enjoying the antics and observing the behavior of the various creatures that visit. Getting to know these animals is a part knowing the land.

Considering Fire

Fire is a natural and normal part of the west. Historically, most areas of the west burned regularly, often every five to ten years. Many communities, such as chaparral, depend on it. This does not lessen our desire not to have our homes or yards damaged or destroyed by a fire, natural or otherwise. It does emphasize the risk that most of us live with. In most years, wildfires consume large areas of the west. In recent years, there have been disastrous wildfires that have swept urban areas of both Northern and Southern California, destroying hundreds of homes and reminding us of our vulnerability.

In most parts of California, sensible landscaping must be designed to minimize the spread of fire. Certainly there is much more to fire prevention than landscape design. No landscape plan is fireproof. The choice of roofing material and the ground’s slope are probably more important. Still should a wildfire occur, the chance of your home surviving it can be increased by proper placement of plants and maintenance.

Buildings that sit above steep slopes are at the most risk. Air flow patterns can accelerate the speed and intensity of fires up these slopes. You should be particularly cautious if your house is in this situation, avoiding trees and most shrubs on the downhill side. A fire resistant ground cover would be a good choice for the hillside.

Placement of plants can be more important for fire resistance than the specific type of plants chosen. “Fire ladders” are particularly dangerous. A fire ladder is an arrangement of plants that provides a continuous fuel supply from ground level through treetop. An example would be a flammable ground cover or debris under medium shrubbery topped by trees. Generally the best way to avoid this problem is to place shrubs at a distance from trees maintaining a gap that cannot easily be jumped by flames. This is particularly important close to the house.

Also important is to maintain a fire resistant perimeter about thirty feet wide around the house. This means that within the perimeter the plants should be widely spaced and either fire resistant or at least not highly flammable. Appedix A includes list of plants in both categories.

Perhaps most the important part of wildfire defense is maintenance. Any trees that are close to the house should be trimmed so they do not overhang roofs, ideally maintaining a ten foot clearance. All debris, such as leaves and needles should be kept clear of the roof and gutters. Periodically clean debris from beneath shrubs and trees. The dry sticks, dead branches, and bark that can build up around plantings can be almost explosive in a fire.

Following these simple guidelines could save your house in a wildfire. They are mostly common sense, but it is surprising how few people follow them. There is no need to become obsessed with fire prevention or to let it dominate your landscape plans, rather keep the risks in mind as you develop your design. You will no doubt find that incorporating these suggestions is not difficult.

California Plant Communities

The California geography is as varied as any state in the United States, more so than many countries. The elevation ranges from, the lowest point on the continent, more than 200 feet below sea level, to the highest in the lower 48 states, over 14,000 feet! Temperatures across the state vary from hot southern deserts to frozen alpine glaciers. Average annual rainfall also differs substantially. Anyone who has travelled through even a small part of the state can hardly help but notice that the vegetation changes, sometimes dramatically, from one area to another. The forests of California’s north coast contain the worlds tallest trees, some exceeding 300 feet, while much of the central valley, though rich in plant life, contains hardly any trees at all.

Understanding the area in which you live should be the first step in determining what natives are best included in your landscaping plans. It should not be surprising that the plant communities within each of the various areas is different. In most cases, a few species dominate an area’s ecosystem. The entire community of plants and animals is effected by those dominant species. The relative mixture may change from spot to spot, but the general composition will stay the same throughout the area, gradually giving way to another type of community.

California can be generally divided into ten vegetative zones:

• Coastal Grasslands
• Central Grasslands
• North Coast Forest
• Woodland Hills
• Riparian
• Chaparral
• Montane Forests
• Subalpine Forests
• Alpine
• Deserts

Coastal Grasslands

California’s coastal grasslands stretch, on and off, all along the Pacific coast from Tijuana to the Oregon border. Though discussed together here, there are wide differences that occur over that distance, best exemplified by average annual rainfall — about 8 inches in San Diego County to over 80 inches in Del Norte County. As one might expect, the type and density of vegetation varies as well.

There are commonalities along the California coast as the entire area’s weather is dominated by the Pacific Ocean. The effect is to greatly modify the climate, providing a relatively uniform temperature throughout the year. Winters are mild and summers are cool in the north to warm in the south. Rain occurs from late fall through the spring with a summer drought. The summer fog provides some critical moisture to the soil and plants. Areas adjacent to the ocean have an almost constant wind, heavily laden with salt.

The plants that dominate the coastal grasslands vary from one community to another. Much of the area is covered by chaparral, containing Manzanita,Sage, Artemisia, Coyote Bush, Baccharis, Oaks, Quercus, Junipers and so on. The areas dominated by grasses are, in general, much changed since the arrival of the Spanish missions due to the introduction of large numbers of cattle and sheep. The native grasses evolved with grazing animals such as elk and deer, but for a variety of reasons never faced the pressure that the sheer numbers of the domestic stock create. In response to the decline of the native forage, first Spanish, then later American settlers over-seeded with exotic grasses. More recently, agriculture and urban sprawl have taken their toll, and introduced more new contenders. The natives, mostly perennial bunchgrasses, have not done well competing with the introduced annual grasses. The replacement of natives has been so complete that to a large extent the original distribution and mix of species is not known.

The naturalized European annual grasses appear all along the coast. Native species tend to split, some occurring only in the north, others only in the south. The split tends to occur either around Santa Barbara or the Monterey peninsula though this is quite variable. Natives still common along the north coast include Pacific Reedgrass (Calamagrostis nutkaensis), Pacific Hairgrass, (Deschampsia holciformis) and California Bentgrass (Agrostis californica).

In the south natives include Crested Stipa, Achnatherum coronata, Foothill Needlegrass (Nassella lepida), Nodding Needlegrass, Nassella cernua, Giant Wildrye (Elymus condensatus) and Thingrass (Agrostis diegoensis), Purple Needlegrass (Nassella pulchra), is perhaps the most widespread native grass, extending down most of the coast.

Central Grasslands

California’s central valley makes up almost a quarter of the state and is one of the richest agricultural areas in the world. The mild climate provides a long growing season and the soil is extremely fertile. The only ingredient lacking is summer water. That is overcome through irrigating with water made available by a system of state and federal dams and aqueduct systems. Today such crops as cotton, rice, grapes, and all manner of vegetables are the dominant species over most of the area.

The central grasslands extend across the flat valley from Redding south to the desert area, just north of Bakersfield, from the Sierra foothills west to the coastal ranges. At its margin, the grasslands merge gracefully into other communities, usually woodland, often with no clear border. The hills east of the San Francisco Bay, for instance, contain grasslands with many scattered, medium-sized oak trees forming a savannah that is part prairie, part forest.

Rain falls during the Autumn, Winter, and early Spring, leaving the rest of the year dry. Rivers flowing from higher elevations bring water through the valley provide an occasional summer oasis. Depressions that catch rainwater, called vernal pools, or “hog wallows”, were once a common feature. These wet spots, typically a few feet deep and up to half a mile across accumulate winter rain then dry out in the summer. A number of plants, primarily annual grasses and wildflowers, evolved in this unusual environment and are restricted to it. As time goes on, these bogs are becoming more rare, being filled for agricultural use or housing.

The temperatures in this area are mild, though with more seasonal fluctuation than the coastal area. Temperatures can exceed 100 degrees in the summer, particularly in the south, and short-lived frosts occur in winter.

Originally the area, referred to as the “Pacific Prairie”, was dominated by perennial grasses and a dazzling display of wildflowers. John Muir provided descriptions during the second half of the last century that are truly amazing. He writes of a sea of color “where your foot would press about a hundred flowers at every step.”

Fire has always played a natural part in maintaining much of the California landscape. In the central valley the effect of fire has been to keep the scattered oaks and annuals to a minimum, allowing the perennial grasses and wildflowers continued dominance. It has been estimated that naturally caused fire swept through most areas of California on an average of every five to ten years. This removed underbrush, often enough to keep the amount of available fuel down, resulting in fires that were relatively cool. The dormant, above ground portions of the perennials would burn well enough, though many contained enough moisture to be somewhat fire resistant, but the root systems normally survived to produce new plants and seeds the following season. Woody plants like oaks, annuals, and most surface seeds did not often survive. Today’s fire control practices, while perhaps necessary, have contributed to altering the flora of the valley and the rest of the west.

As in the rest of California, the composition of the plant communities of the central grasslands depended largely on the amount of water available. Grasses that originally dominated the drier area of both the flat plains and adjoining hills included Purple and Nodding Needlegrass (Nassella pulchra and N. cernua), California and Small-flowered Melic (Melica california and M. imperfecta), California Broome (Bromus carinatus), Blue Wildrye (Elymus glaucus), and others. Deergrass (Muhlenbergia rigens), Creeping Wildrye (Leymus triticoides), Wheatgrass (Agropyron spp.), among others grew in the rich soils along the marshes and rivers. Other species of grasses occurred in more specialized environments such as the vernal pools and marshes.

The common belief is that only a few annual grasses grew in this region, most common in the less fertile, stony soils were the perennials had a more difficult time surviving. A minority point of view is that native annuals were much more important. This theory is based on observations of other areas around the world with similar climates. In those places, long periods of drought seem to favor annual grasses that avoid the dry periods as seeds. The amount and timing of moisture probably had a large impact on the relative mix of annual and perennial grasses, but no one knows for sure.

A diverse variety of wildflowers originally made a spectacular showing in this region. Curly Dock (Rumex crispus), and California Goldenrod (Solidago californica) were common. Yellow flowers included Goldfields (Lasthenia californica), Common Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), Tidy Tips (Layia platyglossa), and Owlclover (Orthocarpus spp.). White flowers included Common Horehound (Marrubium vulgare) and Milkweed (Asclepias fascicularis). Violet to blue flowers included Baby Blue Eyes (Nemophila menziesii) and Brodiaeas (Brodiaea spp.).

North Coast Forest

The northern coastal forest extends from Monterey north to Alaska along the Pacific Ocean in a band that is narrow in the south, widening through Oregon and Washington, and thinning through British Columbia to Alaska. Ocean air moderates temperatures throughout the year and provides constant moisture. Fog and overcast skies are abundant. The southern part of this region, in California to Oregon and Washington, undergoes the West’s summer drought, decreasing in severity to the north.

As with the other areas, there are various communities within this area. They are all dominated by coniferous trees, often among the largest and most long-lived in the world. The famous Redwood groves of northern California and the Olympic Rain Forests of Western Washington are found here. The Coast Redwood often exceeds a height of 250 feet and occasionally surpasses 300 feet. Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), an important timber tree, sometimes also tops 200 feet. Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis), Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Noble Fir (Abies procera), and Pacific Silver Fir (A. amabilis), dominate parts of the area, as well.

Much of the California northern coast forest is presided over by Coast Redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) though some of the most northern inland parts are dominated by Douglas Fir (P. menziesii). Redwood forests occur along the Pacific coast in a band from 5 to 35 miles wide from Monterey north into Oregon. They require constant moisture, taking advantage of relatively abundant rainfall and fog, which can provide as much as twelve addition inches of moisture in the dry summer. In its southern extreme, Redwood forests are restricted to moist bottoms along streams.

Redwoods maintain their supremacy through several interesting strategies. Their unsurpassed height and longevity give them some obvious advantages. Just as important is their tolerance of shade; a small tree can withstand more than 400 years under the closed canopy of its parents, waiting for an opening that, once available, it will quickly fill. Redwoods also have the ability to sprout new growth from its roots, trunk, or stump. They will even sprout a new crown should the old one be destroyed by wind, fire, or lightening. At this writing, the tallest known tree in the world (over 350 feet) is in the process of doing just that! Rapidly closing openings in the canopy prevent foot holds being established by competitors, such as Douglas Fir, that require those openings to survive. Further, should a long term opening occur due to logging, fire, or the demise of old trees, the roots can sprout new shoots in a few weeks, sending them up to seven feet tall in the first year, out growing all of its rivals.

Fire is a constant threat in the west from both man natural causes. Redwoods must withstand these fires many times during their long lives. Thick, fire resistant bark and moist, slow burning wood allow mature Redwoods to weather all but the hottest inferno. Blackened scars, sometimes a century or more in age, attest the giants’ ability to withstand fire.

Redwood forest communities, though often reasonably pure, can include a number of other trees. The community can contain a mixture of conifers and deciduous trees and shrubs, particularly if a break in the over story allows light to penetrate. Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is one of the most consistent residents north of Mendocino. Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) are common north of Eureka, and are scattered to the south. Alders (Alnus spp.) grow along the coast and streams with Willows (Salix spp.) and Bigleaf Maple (Acer macrophyllum). Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) and Pacific Madrone (Arbutus menziesii) can be found in the drier, more open forests. These trees all require some break in the canopy allowing them at least minimal light.

The lower layers are made up a variety of shrubs such as Vine Maple (Acer circinatum), Hazelnut (Corylus cornuta californica), and Oregon Grape (Berberis aquifolium); ferns, Sword Fern (Polystichum munitum) being the most common; and, infrequent wildflowers like Trillium (Trillium ovatum) and Red Violet (Viola sempervirens). Redwood Sorrel (Oxalis oregana) is a common ground cover.

Redwoods love the seaside moisture but cannot tolerate the harsh winds and salt spray at the very edge of the water. For these reasons, they leave the ocean border to others. In the far northern part of the California coast and beyond, Sitka Spruce, Western Hemlock, and Grand Fir (Abies grandis) fill the gap. Most of California’s Pacific rim forest is made up of pines, even well south of the Redwood’s range. The most common of the pines is the Bishop Pine (Pinus muricata), which does well on exposed headlands and poorly drained soil. Monterey Pine (P. radiata) occurs in an extremely limited range within this belt. Shore Pine (P. contorta) and Monterey Cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) also grow in limited areas. Many of the trees in the most exposed areas suffer dwarfing and other deformities. Although Big Sur and the Monterey peninsula are famous for such trees, they are present all along the seaboard.

Woodland Hills

At the edge of the California grasslands, where it meets the coastal and mountain forests is an area known as woodlands. This area encloses the central valley, occurs around the San Francisco Bay, and also extends south into the Baja peninsula. Woodlands are areas that contain elements of both the forest and grasslands. It is generally much more open than a forest and the trees tend to be different and much smaller. Grasses and wildflowers are abundant below and between the trees, but again, they are somewhat different and less dense than in the true grasslands.

It is interesting to note that this type of setting is the most widely desired by man. Perhaps because we evolved in the woodlands of East Africa, we often try to replicate this setting by clearing places in forests or planting trees and bushes in open places; the objective is the mixture of sun and shade found in woodlands.

Woodlands occur naturally as a result of a relatively unique and narrow climate. Abnormal conditions, such as fire, can allow a woodland to develop as an temporary phenomenon. However, in order for a woodland to be a permanent feature, or climax community, the area must have a moderate temperature and enough water to support drought resistant trees, but not enough to allow a forest to dominate. These conditions are rare on a global scale, and so are woodlands.

The dominant tree in California’s woodlands varies based on temperature and the available water. The western hills that sit between the damp coastal forests and central grasslands from San Francisco south tend to support primarily evergreen oaks. Deciduous oaks, particularly Blue Oak (Quercus douglasii), are more common on the cooler inland foothills east of the central valley. Certainly there is much variety within these generalizations; they merely refer to relative abundance. Both evergreen and deciduous oaks grow throughout along with California-laurel (Umbellularia californica). Digger pine (Pinus sabiniana) grows in the moister portions of foothills, while California Black Walnut (Juglans californica) is found in the south and Pacific Madrone (Arbutus menziesii) is common on the coastal hillsides. Along the margins where the woodlands merge with forests, the mingling of species can be rich.

There are four species of evergreen and four deciduous oaks that occur commonly in the California woodland areas. The evergreens are: Coast Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) near the coast, Engelmann Oak (Q. engelmannii) south of Los Angeles, Interior Live Oak (Q. wislizenii), and Canyon Live Oak (Q. chrysolepis) throughout. The deciduous oaks include Oregon White Oak (Q. garryana) north of San Francisco, Valley Oak (Q. lobata) on both sides of the central grasslands, California Black Oak (Q. kelloggii) throughout, and Blue Oak (Q. douglasii) surrounding the central valley.

A number of shrubs grow with and beneath the oaks. They include Redberry and California Buckthorn (Rhamnus crocea & R. californica), Manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), California Buckeye (Aesculus californica) in the north, and Sumacs (Rhus spp.) in the south. Poison Oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) and California Wild Grape (Vitis californica) also grow here.

The native perennial grasses that originally covered the ground within the woodlands have undergone the same assault as elsewhere: wholesale replacement by exotic annuals. Native grass stands are nearly non-existent in the coastal areas. In the Sierra foothills, they still survive in greatly reduced stands. The native species that apparently were once common are similar to those of the central grasslands, Needlegrasses, Melics, Broome, etc., along with Bluegrasses.

Riparian

There are several river systems that run through California, carrying snow melt from the Sierras and draining seasonal rainfall. These rivers and the streams that feed them form a rare community in the California landscape, both in terms of their relative lushness and the variety of plants found there. The most unique feature of the riparian ecosystem is the constant availability of water. The plants that live along the waterways and around freshwater marshes do not have to deal with California’s seasonal drought, and therefore do not normally occur in the other communities. The lack of moisture stress allows the area to support one of the most varied combinations of plant life in the state. It is, however a small community, often restricted to a narrow band only a few yards wide.

The trees that grow along California rivers and streams forming the canopy include Black and Fremont Cottonwoods (Populus balsamifera trichocarpa and P. fremontii), Red and White Alder (Alnus rubra and A. rhombifolia), Oregon Ash, (Fraxinus latifolia), California Sycamore (Platanus racemosa), and Box Elder (Acer negundo). Oregon White Oak (Quercus garryana) and California-laurel (Umbellularia californica) grow here as well as elsewhere. Several varieties of Willow (Salix spp.) grow in the damp parts of California. A few of the Willows can get up to 50 feet in height, but they are normally shrub sized, under 20 feet. The brush along these streams, whether under a canopy of trees or alone, is often quite thick, including a number of vines like California Wild Grape (Vitis californica), shrubs include Poison Oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum), Viburnum (Viburnum edule), California Rose (Rosa californica), Buckthorn (Rhamnus spp.), Raspberries (Rubus spp.) and others.

Smaller herbs, wild flowers, and grasses often must compete with the taller woody plants for sunlight and so are normally either shade loving, like the ferns and Horsetail (Equisetum spp.). Creeping Snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus) and Nettles (Urtica gracilis) are common. Deergrass (Muhlenbergia rigens), Creeping Wildrye (Elymus triticoides), Wheatgrass (Agropyron spp.), are among the grasses that grow here. Cattail (Typha spp.) and Tule (Scirpus spp.) grow in still water along the edge of streams and in marshes.

Chaparral

Areas dominated by woody brush, often bordered by forest or woodland, are know as chaparral. These can be large areas and as a climax community normally occur on well drained slopes too dry to allow the larger trees. There are quite a number of types of chaparral within California, each growing in different areas under different conditions. The dominant shrubs tend to be woody broadleaf evergreens that have several strategies to deal with drought. Some of the dominant species are Ceanothus in Northern California, Manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.) in high elevations often with Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides) in the foothills, Scrub Oaks (Quercus dumosa and Q. berberidifolia) and California Fremontia (Fremontodendron californica) in wetter areas, and Chamise, sometimes called Greasewood (Adenostoma fasciculatum), in the south.

There is also a wetter community very similar to chaparral, called “scrub” which is also made up of shrubs. Along the north coast, in the fog belt, it contains combinations of Coyote Bush (Baccharis spp.), Sticky Monkeyflower (Mimulus aurantiacus), and one of several woody Lupines (Lupinus spp.) as well as several others. Sage scrub is found on hills along the coast from San Francisco south. It includes several types of Sage (Artemisia spp.) and Buckwheat (Eriogonum spp.). Herbaceous plants and wildflowers that occasionally make an appearance include Woolly Blue Curls (Trichostema lanatum) in dry areas, Painted Cup (Castilleja foliolosa) and Cow Parsnip (Heracleum lanatum) in the north, and Golden Yarrow (Eriophyllum confertiflorum), and California Encelia (Encelia californica) in the south.

Thick, pure stands of Manzanita or Chamise tend to force out all other types of plants. Where the chaparral or scrub is mixed, grasses frequently establish themselves. There is some evidence that, particularly in the south, grassland is slowly overtaking the less dense areas. Crested Needlegrass (Achnatherum coronata) and Foothill Needlegrass (Nassella lepida) are common in the south, California Stipa (Achnatherum occidentalis californica) and Melics in the north. Woodland grasses can also often be found here.

Fire is important to all of the chaparral and scrub communities, in some cases being the reason they exist. The denser, woody stands need fire to remove the old dead debris to make room for new growth and to return the nutrients tied up in them to the soil. Often, following a fire, the existing plants will send up new shoots from the surviving root system. In other cases fire prepares the area for seedlings that would otherwise not germinate. For a few years, until the brush re-establishes its dominance, a variety of annuals can make an appearance.

Montane Forests

The montane forests occur between about 1500 and 6500 feet in both the Pacific Coast Ranges, between 2000 and 6000 feet in the northern Sierras to a range of 5000 to 9000 feet in the southern Sierras as well as a few sites in Southern California to Baja. As a general rule, in California annual precipitation increases with altitude and latitude. The average temperature decrease over the same range. The montane forest, dominated by conifers, begins where rainfall reaches around 25 inches a year and extends through the mid-elevations.

This community receives more moisture than most of the state, up to 80 inches in the higher elevations, but almost none of it falls in the summer. Plants that grow here must still have some strategy for surviving the seasonal drought. Although the winter temperatures are substantially lower than most of California, they are quite mild compared to most conifer forests in other mountains around the world. Freezing temperatures on winter nights are common throughout the area, but temperatures below zero are quite rare.

There are a number of forest types within the Montane Forest area, each with its own blend of plant types. The dominant species throughout are conifers, normally occurring in combination, though occasionally in pure stands. Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and White Fir (Abies concolor) combinations are dominant in large areas all through this community. Ponderosa Pine is most common in the lower elevations and on the hotter, drier slopes. The two firs are more numerous in the higher, cooler areas. Other trees mingle with these in varying numbers depending on the local conditions. Perhaps the most famous of these is the Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), which occurs in cool areas where the soil contains moisture throughout the year. California Black Oak (Q. kelloggii) is a fairly common member of this group as is Incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens).

Jeffrey Pine (Pinus jeffreyi) is found across this community becoming dominant, sometimes in pure stands, in high elevations, on serpentine soil, and in colder areas. Jeffrey Pine is tolerant of such a wide range of conditions that it occurs over the length of California and, in varying numbers, in most of the forest communities above 4,000 feet. California Red Fir (Abies magnifica) becomes dominant at the higher elevations of this community in the Sierras, occurring well into the subalpine region. A variety of this tree, Shasta Red Fir (A. magnifica shastensis) fills the same niche in the North Coast Range. Some Red Fir stands in the Sierras are very dense and almost pure. Otherwise Red Firs mix with White Fir in the lower part of its range, Mountain Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and Lodgepole Pine (P. contorta murrayana) at the higher end, and Jeffrey Pine and Incense-cedar throughout.

The Firs and Pines throughout this region often exceed a height of a hundred feet. They can form a dense canopy, but often do not, allowing other, smaller trees and shrubs to form lower layers. Pacific Dogwood (Cornus nuttalli), California-laurel (Umbellularia californica), White Alder (Alnus rhombifolia), Bigleaf Maple (Acer macrophyllum), and Pacific Madrone (Arbutus menziesii) grow in the lower areas. Red Huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), California Hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), Thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) and others often form the shrub layer. Manzanitas, particularly Greenleaf Manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), and any of several types of Ceanothus are the most common shrubs in the driest areas of all elevations, growing under the trees or forming an intermittent chaparral. Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides), Sage (Artemisia spp.), and Scrub Oaks (Quercus dumosa and Q. berberidifolia) sometimes join in the underbrush.

At ground level, quite a number of wildflowers and several grasses can be found where enough light penetrates to allow them. Evening Primrose (Camissonia spp.), Pussypaws (Calyptridium umbellatum), Western Peony (Paeonia brownii), and Larkspurs (Delphinium spp.) grow on open, dry ground. Mountain Pennyroyal (Monardella spp.), White-flowered Hawkweed (Hieracium albiflorum), and Goldenaster (Heterotheca spp.) grow on higher, moist sites. The native grasses that once grew in mountain meadows and throughout this area have suffered over grazing and the introduction of exotics, as elsewhere, but have probably fared at least a little better here. This may be due to the harsher environment, and also that it is somewhat less accessible than the lower and more coastal areas. There is quite a variety of native grasses that grow in parts of this area. Broomes, Melic, Hairgrass, Fescues, and Bluegrass all have several species represented here.

Subalpine Forest

The area above the montane forest, up to the treeline is known as the “Subalpine” zone. The down-slope margin is not a clear division, rather an area of gradual decrease in the relative number of Firs and other mid-elevation species in favor of the more winter hardy high-elevation trees. The upslope treeline is also a transition area, though usually a narrower one, where the forest yields to clumps of trees that may dwarfed and deformed. The only real subalpine regions in California are in the Sierra Nevada range between about 7,500 to 9,500 feet in the north to between about 9,500 and 12,000 feet in the south. Subalpine species can be found in the North Coast range, but their occurrence is spotty and in combination with mid-altitude trees.

As a general rule, the most predominant trees in this region are Mountain Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta murrayana) in the lower parts, and Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis) in the higher places. Foxtail Pine (Pinus balfouriana) is common up to the treeline in the far southern Sierras. Western White Pine (Pinus monticola), Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis), Red Fir (Abies magnifica), Western Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis), and Bristlecone Pine (Pinus aristata), the longest lived tree in the world, are often intermixed in varying numbers.

The brush level in the subalpine area is somewhat limited by the temperatures, when compared to most of the lower communities. Blue Elderberry (Sambucus caerulea), Red and White Mountain-heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis and Cassiope mertensiana), Alpine Laurel (Kalmia microphylloa), and Wax Current (Ribes cereum) are among those that fill this layer.

Meadows are a common feature throughout the high Sierras in valleys basins. They range in size from hundreds of square feet to hundreds of acres. Though dry in mid to late summer, water is plentiful in the spring from snow melt and glacial runoff. Seasonal marsh-like conditions and periodic fires keep the forest at bay. The dominant resident of these open areas are grasses and sedges. Several species of grass are limited to this region.

Alpine Tundra

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The true alpine areas stretch from the tree line to the tops of the highest peaks. The tree line occurs at about 10,500 feet in Yosemite, a little higher to the south and lower to the north. The area varies from the dwarfed plant cover at the tree line to talus slopes and bare rock to places continuously covered by snow and ice. Nowhere are specific micro-climates more important. Conditions that allow one or more plants to sustain themselves may change drastically within a few feet. A single rock or boulder may provide enough shelter for a shrub to grow in its lee.

Moisture and temperature conditions vary here, similar to other California areas. The north is wetter, getting some Summer rain and heavy snow during the very cold Winter. In the South the milder Winter snow depth varies from one year to the next and little rain falls in the Summer. The eastern slopes of the southern Sierras tend to receive only a light Winter snow cover and little rain during the hot Summer.

The Winter snow cover has a major impact on the amount of available moisture in the form of Spring and Summer melt water. It also affords protection from the severe temperatures and strong, drying winds. Regions that are free of snow during the winter do not have the protective cover or a source of Summer moisture often have little, if any, plant life. Conversely, zones with heavy snows are often wet all year supporting meadows, bogs, and marshy places that are abundant with vegetation such as Sedges (Carex spp.), Alpine Willow (Salix anglorum), Alpine Shooting Star (Dodecatheon alpinum), Lemmon Paint Brush (Castilleja lemmonii), Alpine Yarrow (Achillea millefolium lanulosa), Western Needlegrass (Achnatherum occidentalis), and others. The exception, of course, are those places where the snow remains to long to allow an adequate growing season.

The plants found above the tree line are mostly low herbaceous perennials. Some of them are circumpolar, that is, they are found in alpine zones around the north polar cap across North America, Asia, and Europe. Alpine Sorrel (Oxyria digyna) and Roseroot (Sedum rosea) are in this category. Many others have close relatives around the pole.

Since much of the alpine region was recently glaciated, soil is another limiting factor. Bare rock is a common feature, particularly in unprotected places. Thin soil is also common; however, even otherwise denuded spots may accumulate soil in crevices and between rocks that can support Sedges (Carex spp.), Rushes (Juncus spp.), Brewer’s Lupine (Lupinus breweri), Nuttall’s Sandwort (Arenaria nuttallii), and Dwarf Alpine Paintbrush (Castilleja nana). Thin, gravelly coverings support Pussy Paws (Calyptridium umbellatum) and Dwarf Knotweed (Polygonum minimum).

California Deserts

The deserts that occur in the western United States fall within the rainshadow of either the Coastal Ranges or the Sierra/Cascade mountain chain. This is largely because as damp air moves over these mountains, it cools, losing its ability to hold moisture. Rain develops, removing water from the air, one reason why the higher elevations of these mountains tend to be wetter than the adjacent valleys. As the air moves down the leeward slopes, it warms, increasing its ability to carry moisture, but it cannot replace the moisture already lost, so becomes very dry. In fact, this dry air soaks up any available moisture from the land, contributing to the arid conditions. Also, humid air acts as an insulator, moderating both day and night temperatures. Without this protection, desert temperatures tend to sore during the day and plummet at night, both extremes exceeding more humid areas, adding to the hostility of the desert environment.

California deserts can be thought of as three different types based on altitude and location. The first would be the high desert, or California’s portion of the Great Basin that lies east of the Sierras above 4,000 feet. The middle desert would be the Mojave that goes from below sea level in Death Valley to about 4,500 feet. Finally, adjacent to the Mojave and to its south lies the Colorado Desert, California’s portion of the Sonoran Desert, that ranges from sea level to about 2,000 feet.

As in the rest of California, the average rainfall increases with altitude and latitude, while average temperature drops. The Mojave gets from 4 to 15 inches of rain a year and Summer daytime highs of 100Ą are common as are winter frosts. The Colorado, on the other hand, receives only about 1 to 5 inches of rain and temperatures are somewhat higher, frosts occur only from about January 1st to the middle of February and the Summer daytime highs can exceed 110Ą.

The Great Basin, though a desert, is quite cold for much of the year. Temperatures drop well below freezing, occasionally to zero in some places. The average rainfall is about the same as the Mojave to a bit more. The topography of the area is complex, containing a series of parallel ridges that rise 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the basin floor. The plant community is more uniform than one would expect due to a fairly constant climate.

The dominant plant over much of the Great Basin is unquestionably sagebrush, probably the West’s most widespread plant. There are many closely related sagebrushes that have been split into several species and a number of varieties. Artemisia tridentata, commonly known as Great Basin Sagebrush (or Big, Basin, or Common Sagebrush), is probably the most prevalent as it is tolerant of a variety of conditions.

Other shrubs that occur with the sages include Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), Blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima), Mormon Tea (Ephedra spp.), Buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea), Curl-Leaf Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), Gooseberry (Ribes spp.), and others. Wildflowers such as Lupine (Lupinus spp.), Buckwheat (Eriogonum spp.), Monkeyflower (Mimulus spp.), Paintbrush (Castilleja chromosa), Blazing Star (Mentzelia spp.), and Locoweed (Astragalus spp.) can be found between the shrubs. A number of annual and perennial grasses such as Basin Wildrye (Elymus cinereus), Desert Needlegrass (Achnatherum speciosa), and several Bluegrasses (Poa spp.) can also be found.

Pinon-Juniper woodlands occur on slopes where the temperatures are moderate enough and moisture adequate for them. Singleleaf Pinon (Pinus monophylla) prefers the higher slopes blending with Utah or California Juniper (Juniperus osteosperma & J. californica) then fading out to allow pure Juniper stands at lower elevations.

At lower altitudes, where the temperatures increase and annual rainfall drops below seven inches, the Sagebrush relinquishes its reign to members of the Atriplex genus: Shadscale (A.Ęconfertifolia), Lensscale (A. lentiformis), and Wingscale (A.Ęcanescens). The resulting community is called “shadscale scrub”. These shrubs, sometimes called saltbush, space themselves widely due to the root competition for moisture. Other plants associated with this community include the Spiny Boxthorn (Lycium spp.), Cotton Thorn (Tetradymia spinosa), Bud-Sage (Artemisia spinescens), and several cacti.

The Mojave contains plant communities of several other areas including Great Basin Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) with its associates, shadscale scrub, and even Valley Oaks (Quercus lobata), make spotty appearances. This is also true of the Colorado Desert, although to a lesser extent. The most ubiquitous plant in both lower deserts is Creosote Bush (Larrea tridentata) which dominates a majority of the area. Sweetbush (Bebbia juncea), Pygmy Cedar (Peucephyllum schottii), Cheese Bush (Hymenoclea salsola), Buckwheats (Eriogonum spp.), Boxthorns (Lycium spp.), Mormon Tea (Ephedra spp.), Indigo Bush (Dalea fremontii) and various cacti are shrubs that commonly mingle with the Creosote Bush.

Soil conditions vary with respect to amount, alkalinity, and salinity. Shadscale scrub occur in the dryer, more alkaline parts of the Mojave. Though most of the members of this community do not occur widely in the Colorado Desert, a few new participants, such as Allscale (Atriplex polycarpa) and Desert Holly (Atriplex hymenelytra), join the group that rarely grow in the Great Basin. In salty areas Inkweed (Suaeda moquinii) and Parry Saltbush (Atriplex parryi) enter the mix, and Desert Salt Grass (Distichlis spicata) and Big Greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) indicate soil with very high concentrations of minerals.

At higher elevations of the Mojave Desert between 2,500 and 5,000 feet, Joshua Trees (Yucca brevifolia) span the gap between the Pinyon-Juniper woodlands and the lower Creosote Bush scrub. Joshua Trees will join both communities at their margins, becoming part of the woodlands or forming a sparse upper story, casting a shadow on the Creosote Bush undercover.

Desert annuals survive the hot, dry times as seeds. When the rains come, and where the soil is adequate, annuals like Rattlesnake Weed (Euphorbia albomarginata), Calico Plant (Langloisia matthewsii), Desert Star (Monoptilon bellioides), Nama (Nama demissum), and Chinch Weed (Pectis papposa) sprout and live for a few weeks or months as plants before scattering seeds that will be the next generation. During their brief blooming period, the flower show may, or may not be spectacular, largely depending on the weather. Generally the more rain that falls, the better, but how and when it comes is also important. Several small storms spread from November through February is much more helpful than one big one in October. Several soaking rains, spread over the Winter is best.

A Key to the Plant Descriptions

The following sections include California native plants that can be used in landscaping within the state. Some may be used throughout, most are at least somewhat restricted, usually by temperature or available water. The listing is anything but complete as virtually any plant can have some landscape application. The choice of what plants to include is somewhat arbitrary. They all have landscape application, commercial availability, plus at least one other characteristic of particular interest. That aspect may be that they have been used historically for food or medicine, other historic significance, or that they attract wildlife.

The plants that have been listed are all available commercially, either in plant or seed form. It is not usually a good idea to attempt to collect specimens from the wild for at least three reasons. Perhaps the most important of these is that there are few enough relatively undisturbed wild areas now; removing plants from the wild can adversely affect the local community, just the opposite of what we are trying to accomplish. On a more practical level, wild plants, particularly mature ones, tend to be difficult to transplant, the shock of moving often will kill them. Even if you are able to nurse them along, their wild youth may make them leggy and sparse, unsuitable for garden use. The last reason is one of positive identification, not an issue for some gardeners, critical for others. If you find a lot that is about to be bulldozed for one purpose or another, transplanting may be appropriate. Collecting seeds from the wild may be appropriate if the plant is locally abundant, and you take only a small percentage of the available seed, a very little from several plants.

Categorizing the plants into various sections is also, in some cases, rather arbitrary. The difference between wildflowers and shrubs as well as between shrubs and trees is a little hazy. Some plants are in that hazy area, like California Sage that could be considered either an herb or a shrub; others can occur in different forms, like Elderberry that can grow either as a tree or a shrub. They have been listed here by their most common landscape application.

The plants have been listed within type, alphabetically by latin name. Please do not be put off by this; common names are also given and are included in the index for easy reference. The reason for the use of latin is really quite simple: latin names are more specific than common ones and less prone to confusion. Latin names are not perfect, plant names are occasionally changed and there are instances of disagreements among botanists as to the correct name of a given species. While this is true, there is at least an order of magnitude less confusion with latin names than with common ones. Where discrepancies exist in the latin name, The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California , was used as the final authority. When dealing with medicinals, it can be important to be very specific. Edibles allow a little more margin, but the only way to be safe is to know exactly what plant you are dealing with. There are many common names that are used for several plants like Blue Fescue, Chamomile, and Indian Tobacco. You do not have to memorize the latin, just reference it so that you know what you are buying and what you are looking up in other references.

The individual plant descriptions contain information about potential food and medicinal uses as well as other ways in which the plant has been used historically. This information has been provided primarily so that you can learn some of the history and possible contributions of the plant. This knowledge can help you more fully understand and appreciate the plants that are a part of your life. These details may not make you a better gardener, but they are interesting and may lead to a deeper enjoyment of what is around you.

Unless you have some experience collecting and preparing wild foods and medicinals a few comments are in order. First, be absolutely sure of the species of plant you are dealing with before you eat it. Although there are not a lot of poisonous plants around, and most of them are not apt to kill you, there are a few, even several that are commonly used in landscaping. One or two could make you very sick or even kill you. The best approach is to make a positive identification and become familiar with the most common poisonous plants like Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum), Poison Oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum), and Oleander (Nerium Oleander). You may find it helpful in your landscape to place some of the plastic name labels that come with many plants with them when you put them in the ground. If your final design drawing is accurate with respect to species, it can be helpful. Additionally be sure of species, not just the plant family; close relatives do not always share the same characteristics. The deadly Hemlocks are in the same family as the edible Carrots and Queen Anne’s Lace. They also have a similar appearance.

When trying a new food, especially a wild one, it is advisable start with a small quantity. Some people have food allergies that can cause problems. Allergies to most domestic foods are normally isolated at a young age and dealt with as a matter of course. Reactions to wild foods can also develop. Since wild foods are much more varied than domestic ones the probability of being allergic to something is higher, but should this happen, you will probably not have to avoid as wide a spectrum of foods.

A little care, knowledge, and familiarity can go a long way. It is not commonly known how many poisonous plant parts are in our orchards and gardens that we avoid as a matter of course. We eat the tomato’s fruit with abandon, but never consider using the leaves in a salad. Most of us have no idea why, we just do not do it. Tomatoes are closely related to the highly poisonous nightshades, and tomato leaves are poisonous. As a rule when we eat apples we bypass the seeds, discarding the core. Apple seeds contain cyanide and are fatal if consumed in large quantities. This is not meant to scare you, but rather to put all edibles in perspective.

Each plant, whether wild or from the grocery, should be treated uniquely. Wild plants, or those from your landscape, are not more difficult to harvest or prepare than the more traditional vegetables. They appear so only because we lack familiarity with them. This is easy to overcome.

Harvesting the natives is similar to domestic varieties. Leaves should be picked when they are young, before the plant blooms; like domestic vegetables, the leaves grow bitter and tough with age. Flowers are best when they first appear, fruit and nuts just before they fall, and roots should be dug just while the plant is dormant or just before. This makes sense, if you think about what part of the plant is receiving the most development attention in a given growth stage.

As a rule, wild foods have a lot more nutrients than domestic varieties. Commercially grown vegetables have been hybridized for marketability. That is, they have been selected based on characteristics such as appearance, uniformity, size, ability to withstand transportation and storage, and to be picked mechanically. Unfortunately nutrition and flavor have suffered.

The flavor of wild foods does tend to be stronger than that of domestic foods. This might take a bit of getting used to as much of what is found in the grocery is really quite bland. Greens, particularly those with some age, can be quite bitter. If you are boiling them, like spinach, pay particular attention to preparation. First, always bring the water to a boil before adding the leaves; this keeps the bitterness from setting. If they are still bitter, boil them in one or more changes of water. Each change of water removes some of the bitterness. Nutrition loss is often compensated for by greater original content. Lastly, just because a plant is cooked like spinach and even looks like it, do not expect it to taste like spinach.

Herbal teas are made in a similar manner to domestic tea. Again, always bring the water to a boil before adding the plant. Normally tea from leaves and flowers should be steeped, that is, remove the boiling water from the heat, add the plant material, and let it stand long enough to produce the desired strength. This is called an infusion. Roots, bark, and seeds on the other hand are usually best added to boiling water which is allowed to continue slowly boiling. This is called a decoction. Play around with various plant quantities and steeping or boiling times until you find what strength tastes best to you. You will probably find that the steeping or boiling time is a little longer and quantities a little larger than what you expect with store bought tea. A bit of experimentation with various combinations of plant material will yield a bounty of new flavors.

Over half of today’s modern pharmacopeia originated with wild plants. The active ingredients of many of our present medicinals is either taken directly from plants or are laboratory copies of chemicals found naturally in plants. Much of today’s medical research still involves searching the plant kingdom for new cures.

The medicinal information that is given for the plants is strictly historical. None of the information should be used as an alternative to seeing a medical doctor or any other modern medical treatment. Most of the information provided is very general and has been taken from ethnobotanical literature, without regard for its effectiveness. Volumes have been written on the subject. Some of the historical “cures” had little or no effect, some may have even aggravated the condition being treated.

Herbal medicine was all that was available for most of man’s existence, and its use has been universal. Most often some person within a tribe or group was considered the most knowledgeable and capable healer. This person was often, but not always, also the spiritual leader. The practice of herbal medicine by primal people throughout the world bears little resemblance to today’s medical practice. Very little distinction was made between medicinals and edibles, this is largely a modern concept. When a condition arose that required special treatment, as a rule the herbalist was intimately familiar with the patient, observing and living with the person on a daily basis. Treatment was extremely personalized based on this knowledge and on the results of previous individual approaches. The therapy used was holistic in that they combined emotional and spiritual aspects with the physical through ceremonies and other devices. Care could be constant, sometimes the healer would stand a continual vigil until the patient’s condition improved. Treatment could be altered, as needed, on a moment to moment basis. Additionally the herbalist was quite familiar with whatever plant material that was used. The affects of herbs can vary depending on when it is collected, under what conditions, where is grows, how it is applied, in what combinations, and many other variables. The healer took all this into consideration.

Should herbal remedies be of interest to you, there are several good references listed in the bibliography that you are encouraged to investigate. You may find valuable remedies to some of the milder maladies, particularly in the form of teas for nervousness or to help induce sleep.

The other uses that are listed for the plants are also for interest sake. Materials can be gathered from your landscape for natural dyes, basket making, and other crafts and projects. Again, several references are listed in the bibliography should you want to pursue any of these.

Several of the plants listed have been used in smoking mixtures. These have been noted for interest rather than as a recommendation. Before Columbus arrived on this continent, smoking was uniquely American. Today’s use of tobacco is not at all similar to the traditional Native American practice. The original purpose was spiritual, or medicinal, or both. Very few of the materials used were addicting, and it was rarely, if ever, abused. To do so would have been sacrilegious.

Primal people were totally dependent on the landscape in which they lived for all of their needs. We still are today, though the dependence is less obvious and modern transportation allows the landscape we draw on to be larger. Knowledge of the relationships that our predecessors had with plants that we still live among today may help us to remember our connection to the land and broaden our enjoyment of it.